Provincial Kingdoms in Medieval India

Malwa Sultanate [1401-1562]

Founder	Dilawar Khan Ghuri in 1401 following the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate and Timur’s invasion, Malwa declared independence in 1401
Capital	Dhar (initially) Mandu (Hoshang Shah moved the capital to Mandu)
Hoshang Shah	Son of Dilawar Khan Real name – Alp Khan took the name Hoshang Shah.
Ghazni Khan	Son of Hoshang Shah He ordered his capital Mandu to be called “Shadiabad” (the City of Joy).
Khaljis	Mahmud Shah I replaced the Ghurid dynasty in 1436, founding the Khalji dynasty that ruled until 1531.
The Battle of Gagron	The Battle of Gagron was fought in 1519 between Mahmud Khalji II of Malwa and the Rajput Confederacy led by Rana Sanga. Result: Rajput victory. Much of the territory of the Sultanate came under the control of Rana Sanga, who appointed his vassal, Medini Rai, as ruler.
Decline	In 1562 Mughal Empire conquered the Sultanate under its last ruler, Baz Bahadur, integrating it as a subah (province) into the Mughal empire.
Notable architectural marvels	Hoshang Shah’s Tomb in Mandu. It is considered to be India’s first marble tomb.

Gujarat Sultanate [1394-1573]

Established	1394 by Muzaffar Shah I, (Governor of Gujarat under the Tughlaq dynasty) Muzaffar Shah declared independence from Delhi Sultanate in 1394 after Timur’s invasion.
Capital	Anhilwad Patan (1407–1411) Ahmedabad (1411–1484) – Shifted by Ahmad Shah I in 1411 Champaner (1484–1535) Ahmedabad (1535–1573)
Muzaffar Shah I
Ahmad Shah I	In 1509, the Portuguese Empire captured Diu from the Sultanate in the Battle of Diu.
Mahmud Begada
Muzaffar Shah II
Bahadur Shah
	Annexed by Akbar in 1573. Gujarat became a Mughal subah (province)

Medieval Kashmir

Key Dynasties and Rulers

• Karkota Dynasty (c. 625–855 CE)
  • Founder: Durlabhavardhana.
  • Notable Ruler: Lalitaditya Muktapida (r. 724–760 CE).
    • Expanded the kingdom significantly.
    • Promoted art, culture, and architecture, including the construction of the Martand Sun Temple.
• Utpala Dynasty (c. 855–1003 CE)
  • Founder: Avantivarman.
  • Notable Ruler: Shankaravarman.
    • Focused on infrastructure and temple construction.
    • Built the city of Avantipura and numerous temples.
• Lohara Dynasty (c. 1003–1171 CE)
  • Founder: Sangramaraja.
  • Notable Ruler: Harsha (r. 1089–1101 CE).
    • Known for his patronage of arts and literature.
    • His reign saw both prosperity and turmoil, including internal strife and foreign invasions.
• Shah Mir Dynasty (1339–1561 CE)
  • Founder: Shams-ud-Din Shah Mir.
    • Established Islamic rule in Kashmir.
  • Notable Ruler: Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin (r. 1420–1470 CE).
    • Known as Budshah (the Great King).
    • Promoted religious tolerance, cultural development, and economic prosperity.
    • Encouraged arts, crafts, and learning, making his court a center of culture.

Cultural and Religious Contributions

• Hinduism and Buddhism: Early medieval Kashmir was a major center for Hinduism and Buddhism.
  • Temples and Monasteries: The construction of grand temples like the Martand Sun Temple and Buddhist stupas.
• Islam: With the advent of the Shah Mir Dynasty, Islam became the dominant religion.
  • Sufi Influence: Sufism flourished, promoting a syncretic culture of tolerance and learning.
• Literature: Kashmir was known for its scholars and poets.
  • Kalhana’s Rajatarangini: A seminal historical chronicle of Kashmir written in the 12th century.
  • Contribution to Sanskrit Literature: The region produced significant works in Sanskrit, including poetry, drama, and philosophy.

Architecture

• Martand Sun Temple: Built by Lalitaditya Muktapida.
• Avantipura Temples: Constructed by Avantivarman.
• Islamic Architecture: Post-14th century, the region saw the development of Islamic architectural styles with mosques and shrines like the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar.

Political Intrigues and Conflicts

• Mughal Conquest: In the late 16th century, the Mughal Emperor Akbar annexed Kashmir, integrating it into the Mughal Empire.

Medieval Bengal

Ilyas Shahi dynasty

• Founder: Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah (r. 1342–1358)
  • Declared independence from the Delhi Sultanate.
  • Established the capital at Pandua.
• Major Achievements:
  • Extended control over Bengal, Bihar, and parts of Orissa.
  • Successfully defended against the Delhi Sultanate’s attempts to reclaim Bengal.
• Notable Successors:
  • Sikandar Shah (r. 1358–1390): Continued consolidation and expansion.
  • Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah (r. 1390–1411): Promoted cultural and diplomatic relations, including with China.
• Administration:
  • Centralized with the Sultan as supreme authority.
  • Implemented effective land revenue collection.
  • Promoted trade and agriculture.
• Cultural Contributions:
  • Architecture: Notable buildings include the Adina Mosque in Pandua.
  • Literature and Learning: Patronized Persian literature and attracted scholars to their court.
• Interruption and Revival:
  • Rule interrupted by the Hindu Ganesha dynasty in the early 15th century.
  • Restored by Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah (r. 1435–1459), though the revival was short-lived.
• Legacy:
  • Laid the foundation for subsequent Muslim rule in Bengal.
  • Influenced administrative practices, economic policies, and cultural patronage.
• Important Monuments:
  • Adina Mosque: One of the largest mosques in the Indian subcontinent, built by Sikandar Shah.
  • Eklakhi Mausoleum: Example of early Islamic architecture in Bengal, believed to be the tomb of Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah.

Hussain Shahi dynasty

• Founder: Alauddin Hussain Shah (r. 1494–1519)
  • Established the dynasty by overthrowing the last Ilyas Shahi ruler.
  • Conquered Kamrup-Kamata and Orissa, and extended the Sultanate to Chittagong.
  • Known for his administrative acumen and patronage of the arts.
  • Known as the Akbar of Bengal, also called Nripati Tilak and Jagatbhusan by Hindus.
• Notable Successors:
  • Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah (r. 1519–1533): Continued his father’s policies and maintained the prosperity of the kingdom. He gave refuge to Afghans during Babur’s invasion, and remained neutral.
  • Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah (r. 1533–1538): Faced the decline of the dynasty due to internal conflict and external threats.
• Cultural Contributions:
  • Architecture: Significant architectural developments, including mosques, madrasas, and forts.
  • Literature and Arts: Patronized Bengali and Persian literature; promoted a cultural renaissance that blended Islamic and Bengali traditions.
  • Religious Tolerance: Promoted harmony among various religious communities, including Hindus and Muslims.
• Major Monuments:
  • Choto Sona Mosque: Located in Gaur, known for its intricate stone carvings and terracotta work.
  • Baro Sona Mosque: Another architectural marvel from the Hussain Shahi period, showcasing the grandeur of the dynasty.
• Decline:
  • The dynasty began to decline after the death of Nasrat Shah, facing internal conflicts and the growing threat of the Mughal Empire.
  • The last ruler, Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah, was defeated by the Mughal forces led by Sher Shah Suri in 1538, marking the end of the dynasty.

Assam

Ahom Kingdom

• Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826)
  • Founder: Sukaphaa, a Tai prince, established the kingdom in 1228.
  • Expansion: The Ahoms gradually expanded their territory, incorporating various local tribes and regions into a unified state.
  • Administration: Known for their unique administrative system, including the Paik system (labor and military service).
  • Military Conflicts: Successfully resisted multiple Mughal invasions, most notably during the reign of Swargadeo Rudra Singha and in the Battle of Saraighat (1671) under Lachit Borphukan.
  • Decline: The kingdom faced internal strife and external pressures, ultimately succumbing to the Burmese invasions and later annexation by the British in 1826 (Treaty of Yandabo).

Koch Dynasty (1515–1949)

• Koch Dynasty (1515–1949)
  • Founder: Biswa Singha established the Koch Kingdom in the early 16th century.
  • Expansion: Under Nara Narayan, the kingdom expanded significantly, encompassing parts of present-day Assam, Bengal, and Bhutan.
  • Division: Post-Nara Narayan, the kingdom split into Koch Bihar and Koch Hajo, with Koch Bihar eventually becoming a vassal of the Mughal Empire.
• Kachari Kingdom (medieval period to 1832)
  • Location: Based in the present-day Dima Hasao and Cachar districts.
  • Administration and Culture: Developed a distinct culture and administrative system, contributing to the region’s diversity.
  • Decline: The kingdom gradually declined due to internal conflicts and external pressures, finally annexed by the British in 1832.

Orissa

Key Dynasties

• Bhaumakara Dynasty (8th to 10th century)
  • Founders: Established by Kshemankara.
  • Achievements: Promoted Buddhism alongside Hinduism; significant construction of Buddhist monasteries and stupas.
• Somavamshi Dynasty (9th to 12th century)
  • Notable Rulers: Janmejaya I and Yayati II.
  • Achievements: Built the famous Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar; the dynasty laid the foundation for the Jagannath cult.
• Eastern Ganga Dynasty (11th to 15th century)
  • Notable Rulers: Anantavarman Chodaganga, Narasimhadeva I.
  • Achievements:
    • Anantavarman Chodaganga: Began the construction of the Jagannath Temple at Puri.
    • Narasimhadeva I: Built the Sun Temple at Konark, a UNESCO World Heritage site.
  • Military Achievements: Successfully resisted invasions from the Cholas and the Islamic rulers of Bengal.
• Suryavamsi Gajapati Dynasty (15th to 16th century)
  • Founder: Kapilendra Deva.
  • Achievements: Expanded the kingdom to its greatest extent, covering parts of present-day Andhra Pradesh, Bengal, and Tamil Nadu.
  • Cultural Patronage: Promoted Odia literature and arts.

Socio-Economic and Cultural Aspects

• Agriculture: Predominantly agrarian economy with advancements in irrigation and farming techniques.
• Trade: Engaged in trade with Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and other parts of India; known for the export of textiles, rice, and spices.
• Religion and Culture:
  • Hinduism: Dominant religion, with major temples dedicated to Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti.
  • Buddhism and Jainism: Also flourished, especially during the Bhaumakara dynasty.
  • Jagannath Cult: Emerged and became central to Oriya identity and culture.
• Language and Literature: Development of Odia language and literature; notable literary works include “Sarala Mahabharata” by Sarala Das.
• Art and Architecture: Golden age of temple architecture; notable examples include:
  • Lingaraja Temple: Bhubaneswar.
  • Jagannath Temple: Puri.
  • Sun Temple: Konark.
• Performing Arts: Flourishing of classical dance forms like Odissi.

Key Historical Events

• Construction of Jagannath Temple: Initiated by Anantavarman Chodaganga (12th century), completed by subsequent rulers.
• Battle of Kalinga (13th century): Not the famous ancient battle involving Ashoka, but later conflicts where Orissa resisted Muslim invasions.
• Gajapati Expansion (15th century): Under Kapilendra Deva, Orissa reached its territorial zenith.

Jaunpur

Founding and Geography

• Founder: Malik Sarwar, a former slave and governor under the Delhi Sultanate, declared independence around 1394, founding the Jaunpur Sultanate.
• Capital: Jaunpur, situated in present-day Uttar Pradesh, India.

Major Rulers

• Malik Sarwar (r. 1394–1399): The first ruler, who laid the foundations of the sultanate.
• Malik Qaranful (r. 1399–1401): His short reign saw the consolidation of power.
• Ibrahim Shah Sharqi (r. 1402–1440): Considered the greatest ruler of the dynasty, he expanded the kingdom and patronized arts and architecture.
• Mahmud Shah Sharqi (r. 1440–1457): Continued his predecessor’s policies but faced increasing pressure from the Lodis of Delhi.

Administration and Military

• Administrative System: Modeled on the Delhi Sultanate, with efficient land revenue collection and military organization.
• Military Conflicts: Frequently clashed with the Delhi Sultanate, particularly under the Lodi dynasty, leading to eventual decline.

Cultural Contributions

• Architecture: The Jaunpur Sultanate is renowned for its unique architectural style, blending Islamic and Indian elements.
  • Atala Mosque: Built by Ibrahim Shah, a masterpiece of Indo-Islamic architecture.
  • Jama Masjid: Another architectural gem from the Jaunpur Sultanate, showcasing the grandeur of the period.
• Education and Learning: Jaunpur was known as the “Shiraz of India” due to its vibrant intellectual and cultural life. It became a center for Islamic learning and scholarship.

Decline

• Invasions and Internal Strife: Increasing conflicts with the Delhi Sultanate, particularly under the Lodi dynasty.
• Annexation: The sultanate was annexed by the Lodi Sultan Bahlul Lodi in 1479, marking the end of independent rule in Jaunpur.

Amer

Founding and Geography

• Location: Situated about 11 kilometers from Jaipur, the capital city of Rajasthan.
• Founders: Originally established by the Meena tribe and later taken over by the Kachwaha Rajputs in the 11th century.

Major Rulers

• Raja Man Singh I (r. 1590–1614)
  • A prominent general in the Mughal Emperor Akbar’s court.
  • Responsible for significant architectural developments in Amer, including parts of the Amber Fort.
• Raja Jai Singh I (r. 1621–1667)
  • Known for his loyalty to the Mughal emperors and contributions to the architecture of Amer.
• Raja Jai Singh II (r. 1699–1743)
  • Founded the city of Jaipur in 1727, moving the capital from Amer to Jaipur.

Architecture and Cultural Contributions

• Amber Fort
  • Construction: Built over several generations, starting in the 16th century by Raja Man Singh I, with significant contributions from subsequent rulers.
  • Style: The fort showcases a blend of Hindu and Mughal architectural styles, characterized by large ramparts, series of gates, and cobbled paths.
  • Notable Features:
    • Sheesh Mahal (Mirror Palace): Famous for its intricate mirror work.
    • Diwan-i-Aam (Hall of Public Audience): Used for public meetings and gatherings.
    • Ganesh Pol: The main entrance gate adorned with beautiful frescoes and intricate carvings.
• Other Structures:
  • Jagat Shiromani Temple: Dedicated to Lord Krishna, built by Queen Kanakwati, the wife of King Man Singh I.
  • Panna Meena ka Kund: An ancient stepwell known for its geometric design and historical significance.

Cultural and Historical Significance

• Capital Shift: The shift of the capital from Amer to Jaipur by Jai Singh II marked a significant transition in the region’s history, leading to the development of Jaipur as a major cultural and economic hub.
• Role in Mughal Empire: The rulers of Amer maintained close ties with the Mughal Empire, often serving as generals and administrators in the Mughal court. This relationship influenced the cultural and architectural development of the region.
• Tourism: Today, Amer Fort is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a major tourist attraction, known for its historical significance and architectural beauty.

Mewar

Founding and Geography

• Location: Situated in the south-central part of Rajasthan, with Udaipur as its historic capital.
• Founders: The Guhila (or Gahlot) dynasty founded Mewar in the 6th century CE.

Major Rulers

• Bappa Rawal (r. 728–753)
  • Considered the founder of the Mewar dynasty.
  • Established control over the region and laid the foundation for a powerful kingdom.
• Rana Kumbha (r. 1433–1468)
  • Expanded the kingdom significantly.
  • Patronized art and architecture, built the Kumbhalgarh Fort, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  • Known for his contributions to literature and music.
• Rana Sanga (r. 1508–1528)
  • Fought against the invading forces of the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughals.
  • Known for his resistance against Babur in the Battle of Khanwa (1527).
• Maharana Pratap (r. 1572–1597)
  • Famous for his defiance against Mughal Emperor Akbar.
  • Known for the Battle of Haldighati (1576), where he valiantly fought the Mughal forces.
  • Symbol of Rajput valor and resistance.
• Rana Raj Singh I (r. 1652–1680)
  • Resisted Mughal control and maintained the independence of Mewar.
  • Known for his conflict with Aurangzeb and for preserving Mewar’s sovereignty.

Architecture and Cultural Contributions

• Forts and Palaces: Mewar is renowned for its impressive forts and palaces, showcasing Rajput architecture.
  • Chittorgarh Fort: One of the largest forts in India, a symbol of Rajput bravery and sacrifice.
  • Kumbhalgarh Fort: Known for its massive walls and strategic location.
  • City Palace, Udaipur: A magnificent palace complex showcasing the opulence and architectural prowess of Mewar rulers.
• Temples:
  • Eklingji Temple: Dedicated to Lord Shiva, a significant spiritual site for the rulers of Mewar.
  • Jagdish Temple: Located in Udaipur, known for its architectural beauty.
• Literature and Arts: The rulers of Mewar were patrons of the arts. They supported literature, music, and painting, contributing to the rich cultural tapestry of the region.

Historical Significance

• Resistance Against Invaders: Mewar is celebrated for its resistance against various invaders, particularly the Mughals. The steadfastness of its rulers, especially Maharana Pratap, is legendary.
• Rajput Valor and Sacrifice: The history of Mewar is marked by numerous instances of heroism, including the acts of Jauhar (self-immolation) by Rajput women to avoid capture and dishonor.

Legacy

• Symbol of Rajput Pride: Mewar continues to be a symbol of Rajput pride and cultural identity. The tales of its rulers’ bravery and sacrifices are integral to Rajasthan’s history.
• Tourism: The forts, palaces, and temples of Mewar are major tourist attractions, drawing visitors from around the world to witness the grandeur and history of the region.

Marwar

Founding and Geography

• Location: Situated in the western part of Rajasthan, encompassing parts of the Thar Desert.
• Founders: Established by the Rathore dynasty, with Rao Jodha founding the city of Jodhpur in 1459, which became the capital of Marwar.

Major Rulers

• Rao Jodha (r. 1438–1489)
  • Founded the city of Jodhpur.
  • Laid the foundation for the fortifications and expansion of Marwar.
• Rao Maldev (r. 1532–1562)
  • Expanded the kingdom significantly, making Marwar one of the most powerful Rajput states.
  • Successfully resisted invasions by the Mughal Emperor Humayun.
• Maharaja Jaswant Singh (r. 1638–1678)
  • Known for his military campaigns and administrative reforms.
  • Played a significant role in Mughal politics, serving Emperor Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb.
• Maharaja Ajit Singh (r. 1679–1724)
  • Resisted Mughal attempts to annex Marwar.
  • Reclaimed Jodhpur from Mughal control and restored Rathore rule.

Architecture and Cultural Contributions

• Mehrangarh Fort:
  • Construction: Built by Rao Jodha in 1459 and expanded by subsequent rulers.
  • Features: One of the largest forts in India, known for its intricate carvings, expansive courtyards, and museums housing artifacts from Marwar’s history.
• Umaid Bhawan Palace:
  • Construction: Built in the 20th century by Maharaja Umaid Singh.
  • Features: One of the largest private residences in the world, blending Indo-Saracenic and Western architectural styles.
• Mandore Gardens:
  • Significance: Ancient capital of Marwar before Jodhpur, known for its temples, memorials, and cenotaphs of Marwar rulers.
• Cultural Contributions:
  • Folk Music and Dance: Marwar is known for its vibrant folk traditions, including music forms like Maand and dances like Ghoomar.
  • Literature: Development of Rajasthani literature and patronage of poets and scholars.

Historical Significance

• Strategic Location: Marwar’s location in the Thar Desert made it a strategic and resilient kingdom, difficult for invaders to conquer.
• Resistance to Mughal Rule: The rulers of Marwar often found themselves in conflict with the Mughals, maintaining a significant degree of independence.
• Political Alliances: Formed strategic alliances through marriages and treaties, balancing relationships with the Mughals and later the British.

Legacy

• Rajput Valor: Marwar’s history is marked by the valor and resilience of its Rajput rulers, symbolizing the martial spirit and independence of Rajasthan.
• Architectural Heritage: The forts, palaces, and gardens of Marwar attract tourists and historians, showcasing the grandeur and cultural richness of the region.
• Cultural Influence: The region’s folk traditions, music, and dance continue to thrive, preserving the cultural heritage of Marwar.

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