Vedic Period – Political, Economical, Social and Religious Life of Vedic Aryans [1500BC-600BC]

Early Vedic Period Notes (1500 – 1000 BC)

Early Vedic Civilization Map

Geographical Extent

• The Rigveda gives us knowledge of the geographical extent of the Early Vedic period.
• Aryans were confined to the area which came to be known as the ‘Saptasindhu’ or ‘Saptasindhava’ (land of the seven rivers) comprising modern-day eastern Afghanistan, Punjab (both of India and Pakistan), and parts of western Uttar Pradesh.
• According to historians, these seven rivers are the five rivers of Punjab along with the Indus and the Sarasvati.
• The Rigveda mentions the following rivers:-
  • Kubha (Kabul in the modern times),
  • Krumu (Kurram), Gomati (Gomal),
  • Sindhu (Indus), and its five tributaries
  • Vitatsa (Jhelum),
  • Asikni (Chenab),
  • Parushni (Ravi),
  • Vipasa (Beas), and
  • Sutudri (Sutlej).
  • Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Ghaggar (Drishadvati), Sarayu, and some other rivers are also mentioned.

Early Vedic Period Political Life

• Tribal Organization: During the Vedic period, the territory occupied by the Aryans was divided into different tribes. The chief of a tribe was called a “Rajan“.
• Governance: Monarchy was probably the most common, but other forms of government were also mentioned. A few instances of public elections are also available.
• Councils of Governance: The autonomy of the Rajan was restricted by two councils the Samiti (the assembly of the common people) and the Sabha (the assembly of the special people).
• Taxes paid by conquered tribes and gifts from people were the source of the king’s income.
• Role of Priests: The place of priests in society was very important, and their authority was not limited to religious matters only.
• Government Officials: Among the government officials, “Senani“(army chief) and “Gramani“(village chief) are mentioned.

Early Vedic Period Economic Life

• Livelihood:
  • The Aryans were mainly herdsmen.
  • Cows and bulls were their most valuable possessions. Cows are labelled “Aghnya” (not to be killed).
  • Animal husbandry was the main source of income for the people.
  • Horses were also considered very valuable. Other domesticated animals included sheep, goats, donkeys, and dogs.
  • Hunting was both for entertainment and food gathering. Generally, lions, pigs, buffaloes, deer, and birds were hunted.
• Agriculture:
  • Oxen were used to pull ploughs and carts.
  • Barley was cultivated.
  • Rice cultivation began later.
• Irrigation: Irrigation was prevalent for agriculture.
• Important Cities: During the period of composition of Brahmana, there are clear references to major cities like Kausambi, Kashi, etc.
• Handicraft:
  • Acquiring professional skills in handicraft production occupied a special place in the Vedic economy. From the bull skin, containers for liquids, bows and quills, etc. were prepared.
  • Those who worked in wood were usually carpenters, furniture makers, and chariot makers.
  • Metallurgical work was also a prominent occupation.
• Maritime Activities:
  • The sea route was not unknown. The Aryans were familiar with the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean.
  • Ship-building methods were also prevalent.
  • Small boats were used for river navigation.
• Trade:
  • It is doubtful whether there was extensive maritime trade.
  • There was considerable expansion of trade within the country. Instead of coins, bullion and gold ornaments were used as means of buying selling, and exchanging.
  • There are mentions of profitable trade journeys to distant regions.
• Slavery: Despite the repeated references to slavery in the Vedas, historians believe that the Vedic economy was not dependent on slave labour. No livelihood was dishonourable then. Tanners were not considered to be low-level people in the society.

Early Vedic Society

• Social Structure and Gender Roles:
  • Vedic society was relatively egalitarian (following the principle that everyone should have equal rights).
  • Both women sages and female gods were known to Vedic Aryans.
  • The patriarchal family was the basis of social as well as political life.
  • Male monogamy was common, but polygamy was not unknown.
  • The position of women in the society was high.
  • Some of them seem to have been educated, as hymns written by women can be found in the Samhitas.
• Marriage Practices:
  • Different types of marriages— monogamy, polygyny, and polyandry are mentioned in the Rigveda.
  • Child marriage was unknown. Widow remarriage was also probably common. Women moved freely and participated in feasts and dances.
  • Women could choose their husbands and could remarry if their husbands died or disappeared.
  • There is no mention of multiple marriages of women.
• Food and Diet:
  • Barley, dairy and dairy products, vegetables and fruits were the staple food.
  • Probably meat was eaten during Yajna.
  • Bull, sheep and goat meat were eaten.
  • Horse meat was eaten only during Ashwamedha yajna.
  • Drinking alcohol was prevalent in the society. “Sura” was a popular drink. It was more intoxicating than ‘Somras‘.
• Clothing and Ornaments:
  • A two-piece garment was used to cover the upper part of the body and the lower part of the body.
  • Clothes of cotton, wool, and animal skin were worn.
  • Ornaments were usually gold-plated. Both men and women wore ornaments.
• Entertainment and Pastimes:
  • Both vocal and instrumental music were in vogue. Among the musical instruments, dunduvi, veena, and banshi were more common.
  • Dancing, Chariot racing, and Gambling were popular pastimes.
• Education and Learning:
  • Education was oral, meaning the Guru taught the disciples orally.
  • Probably the use of the script was unknown.

Aryans Religion: Early Vedic Period

Later Vedic Period Notes (1000 – 600 BC)

Later Vedic Period Geographical Extent

• Migration and Settlement:
  • In this period Aryans migrated to parts of eastern Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and northern Bihar.
  • Satapatha Brahmana throws light on this migration to the eastern Gangetic plains.
  • The Rigveda is full of descriptions of endless wars with “dasas” or “dasyus“.
  • During the period of “Brahmana,” the importance of the Punjab gradually decreased, and the importance of the eastern region continued to increase.
  • During this period the main center of Aryan civilization was the “Madhyadesha” extending from the Saraswati River to the Gangetic basin.
• Key Regions and Tribes:
  • Kurukshetra (near Delhi), Kosala (Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh), Kashi (Varanasi), Videh (North Bihar), Magadha (South Bihar) and Anga (Eastern Bihar) etc. regions are mentioned many times.
  • It seems that communication was also established with “Dakshinapath“. The “Andhra“s of the Godavari valley and the “Pulinda” and “Shabara“s of the forested areas of the Vindhya mountains are mentioned.
  • Kurus and Panchalas were the most important two tribes during this period.

Later Vedic Period Political Life

• Sources of Information:
  • Information about the evolution in the political and social organization of the Aryans in the later Vedic period is found in the “Brahmanas” and “Upanishads” and the Sutra literature.
• Rise of Kingdoms and Changes in Political Structure:
  • This period was an era of expansion in the political and cultural spheres.
  • Aryans had already crossed the Narmada River, but the Kuru–Panchala region was still the heartland of the Aryan civilization.
  • The small political divisions of the Rigvedic period were replaced by fairly large kingdoms.
  • Those kings who were able to fulfil their desire to expand their kingdom to some extent used to perform yagnas like “Vajpaya”, “Rajshuya” and “Ashwamedha”.
  • The “Samiti” and “Sabha” lost their importance.
• Prominent Kingdoms:
  • Later Vedic literature mentions Kampil, the capital of the Panchalas, Asandivat, the capital of the Kurus, Kosambi, the capital of the Vatsa, and Kashi, the capital of the Kashi kingdom.
  • Clans like Bharat which had gained prominence in the Rigvedic period, lost their political prominence. Their place was occupied by other clans like the Kurus and Panchals.

Later Vedic Period Economic Life

• There are some important changes in the economic field.
• The predominance of agriculture remained intact.
• Agricultural machinery, especially the plough, had improved.
• New metals such as lead, tin and iron started to be used.
• New industries and trades such as dyeing cloth and weaving ropes emerged.
• Circulation of the coin begins.

Later Vedic Period Social Life

• Evolution of the Caste System:
  • The “Kalpa Sutras” contain valuable hints about the evolution of the caste system.
  • The profession of the priestly and elite class became hereditary.
  • The Vaishyas and Shudras began to divide into more and more hereditary subsistence classes.
  • The rules regarding inter-caste marriage became very strict.
• Status and Role of the Shudras:
  • The condition of the Shudras improved. They were not just slaves, they were considered independent workers. With the spread of Aryan civilization in different parts of India, it was no longer possible for the leaders of the Aryan society to keep millions of non-Aryans in slavery.
• Position of Women:
  • Women had access to education. Some of them (e.g. Gargi and Maitreyi) were established in the field of education.
  • The birth of a daughter was considered a cause of sorrow in that era.
  • Women could not enjoy or inherit property.
  • Gradually, they were also deprived of the right to participate in religious ceremonies with their husbands.
  • Polygamy was common among the royal and wealthy classes.

Theories Related to the Origin of Aryans

Central Asian Theory	This theory was advocated by the famous German philologist (study of language in oral and written historical sources) Max Mueller. After making a comparative study of The ‘Avesta’ and the ‘Vedas’, he concluded that ancestors of Indian and Iranian Aryans lived in the region adjacent to these countries
European Theory	This theory was forwarded by Sir W. Jones in 1786 and was based on comparative linguistics.
Indian Theory	Indigenous Aryans theory (IAT) and the Out of India Theory, say that the Aryans are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. According to Dr. Sampurnanand and A. C. Das, the “Sapta Sindhu” region was the homeland of the Aryans. According to Ganganath Jha “Brahmarishi Desh” was the land of the Aryans.
Tibetan Theory	Swami Dayanand Saraswati advocated the theory that Tibet was the original homeland of the Aryans.
Arctic Region Theory	Bal Gangadhar Tilak concluded that the Arctic region was the original home of Aryans during the pre-glacial period based on his analysis of Vedic hymns, scripture of ancient Iran, Vedic chronology, and Vedic calendars. Bal Gangadhar Tilak wrote a book in 1903 titled “The Arctic Home in the Vedas“.

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