Indus Valley Civilization [3300-1300 BCE] | Comprehensive UPSC Notes

Indus Valley Civilization UPSC Notes

• One of the Earliest Civilizations: The Harappan Civilization was one of the four earliest civilizations of the world, along with the civilization of Mesopotamian Civilization between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the Shang Civilization on the River Hwang Ho, and the Egyptian Civilization on the River Nile.
• A Bronze Age Civilization: The Harappan Civilization is considered a Bronze Age Civilization because it existed when bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was widely used for making tools, weapons, and ornaments.
• Number of Settlements: Till now over 1500 settlements of the Harappan Civilization have been discovered.
• Geographical Spread:
  • The Harappan Civilization covered around 11299600 square kilometres, spanning the Indus River basin (Pakistan), Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Punjab (India & Pakistan).
  • The Harappan Civilization had a North-South spread of 1400 km and an East-West spread of 1600 km
  • Around 80% of settlements are located on the bank of the river Saraswati which is extinct today.
• Archaeological Division: Archaeologists like Mortimer Wheeler divided the Indus Valley Civilization into Early, Mature, and Late Harappan.

Geographical Extent

Northernmost site	Manda (J&K) – Located on the bank of the Chenab River in the foothills of the Pir Panjal range, 28 km northwest of Jammu.
Southernmost site	Daimabad (Maharashtra) -Located on the left bank of the Pravara River, a tributary of the Godavari River in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra. -This site was discovered by B. P. Bopardikar in 1958.
Westernmost site	Sutkagan dor on the Makran Coast of Balochistan (Pakistan).
Easternmost site	Alamgirpur (UP) – Located in Meerut district, Uttar Pradesh.

Indus Valley Sites Map

Major Sites of Indus Valley Civilization and Their Archaeological Findings

The table below provides a concise overview of significant Indus Valley sites, their locations, discoverers, and notable archaeological findings, essential for UPSC and State PSC exam preparation.

Name of the Sites	Archaeological findings
Harappa Year of excavation – 1921 by Dayaram Sahni (the first site to be discovered) Location – On the bank of river Ravi, Montgomery district of Punjab province (Now in Pakistan)	Six Granaries in a row. Grid planned city. Coffin burial Virgin-Goddess(seal) Stone symbols of Lingam and Yoni. Clay figures of mother Goddess. Naked male torso (red sandstone) Wheat and Barley in a wooden mortar. Copper scale. Dice, Vanity box; mirror made of Copper, workmen’s quarter.
Mohenjodaro In the Sindhi language, the word Mohenjodaro means mound of the dead. Excavation – 1922 by Rakhaldas Banerjee Location – On the bank of Indus, Larkana district of Sindh, Pakistan	Grid-planned city, Great Granary, Great Bath (the largest building), Assembly hall, Pashupati seal, Bronze image of a nude woman dancer, steatite image of a bearded man, Clay figure of a mother goddess.
Lothal Excavation year – 1954 by S.R.Rao Location – On the confluence of the Bhogava and Sabarmati rivers near the Gulf of Cambay (Gujarat)	The first man-made port in the world, Dockyard made by burnt bricks, painted jar, Rice husk, Fire altars, Measuring scale, Double burial (Male & Female), The earliest cultivation of rice.
Chanhudaro Year of Excavation – 1925 Location – On the bank of the Indus River, Nawabshah District in Sindh(Pakistan)	Bead Making Factory Only Indus site without a citadel Fire altars; camel bones; well; wheels of a toy cart; Mesopotamian cylindrical seal, tiger marked coin.
Farmana Location – Rohtak, Haryana	Largest burial site with 65 burials
Rakhigarhi Year of excavation – 1969 Location – Hisar, Haryana	Largest Indus site. Cotton cloth traces on silver or bronze objects.
Banawali – 1973 Location – Ghaggar River, Hisar district (Haryana)	Terracotta figure of a plough, Lack of systematic drainage system
Surkotada – 1964 Location – Luni Kutch Gujrat (India)	The only site with evidence of horse bones
Amri – 1935 Location – Sindh, Pakistan	Remains of rhinoceros
Ropar – 1955 Location – Sutlej Punjab (India)	Dog buried with humans.
Dholavira Excavation – 1967-68 Location – On the bank of Luni, Kutchh, Gujarat	Earliest Water management system in the world The largest site of the large well and bath Three parts of city Largest Harrappan inscription used for civil purposes a stadium
Balakot Location – Balochistan, Pakistan	The earliest evidence of a furnace
Kunal Location – Haryana	Earliest Pre-Harappan site, Copper smelting
Kalibangan Location – Hanumangarh District, Rajasthan	Fire altars Cylindrical seal
Alamgirpur – 1958 Location – Hindon Meerut (UP)	Impression of cloth on trough
Daimabad Location – Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra	A sculpture of a bronze chariot, Southernmost IVC site
Shortughai (Discovered in 1976) Location – Northern Afghanistan A trading post of the Indus Valley Civilization on the bank of the Oxus River (Amu Darya) near the lapis lazuli (a precious stone) mines.	Beads and Ornaments Terracotta Figurines: Models of cattle with carts, a typical IVC motif. Painted Pottery Ploughed Fields: The discovery of flax seeds, proof of dryland farming. Irrigation Canals: A network of canals was built to bring water from the Kokcha River, located 25 km away.

Town Planning of Harappan Civilization

The Harappan Civilization was known for its advanced and systematic town planning:

• Grid System: The main feature of Harappan town is that the cities were designed with streets laid out in a grid pattern, with roads intersecting at right angles. This level of organization was rare for its time. The layout of streets and buildings suggests a degree of centralized planning and administration.
• Fortifications: Cities were surrounded by walls for protection, indicating awareness of security.
• The division into Sections:
  • Towns were divided into two different sections: an “upper town” or citadel and a “lower town“.
  • The lower town consisted of residential buildings located on the eastern side of the city, while the citadel was on the western side of the city which probably contained public buildings like granaries and baths.
• Building Materials: Most structures were made of fired and mortared bricks of standardized dimensions, while some used sun-dried mud bricks and wooden superstructures.
• Drainage Systems:
  An extensive and sophisticated underground drainage system managed wastewater effectively, showing advanced engineering skills.
• Public Structures:
  Cities like Mohenjo-Daro had public baths (e.g., the Great Bath) and granaries.

Comparison with the Contemporary World:

1. Mesopotamia:
   • Mesopotamian cities lacked a strict grid system, and streets were often narrow and unplanned.
   • Drainage systems were rudimentary compared to Harappa.
2. Egypt:
   • Egyptian cities were more centred around monumental structures like pyramids and temples rather than organized town planning.
   • Drainage and sanitation were not as advanced.
3. China:
   • Early Chinese settlements, like Erlitou, had palatial complexes but lacked the uniform grid system of Harappa.

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Large Buildings

Citadels	1. It is the upper part of the political, economic-rich area. 2. There was the presence of multi-story buildings. Houses are created from stone, mud-brick, and wood. Assembly halls are also found there.
Public baths	1. These were used for rituals and ceremonies. 2. There were small rooms along with a bath. 3. Bricks are used for making public baths.
Granaries	These are found in citadels to save from rats and the other reasons. These are also found at Lothal Dockyard as storage places for import and export. The “Great Granary” is the largest building in the Indus Valley civilization.
The Lothal Dock Yard	It is away from the main current to avoid the deposition of silt. There is a wood lock gate system to avoid tidal flow.
Artificial lakes	Dug out of stone to store water.
Corbelling	Used extensively by the Harappans. A corbel is a structural piece of stone, wood, or metal in a wall to carry a superincumbent weight.

Water Management system

The Harappan Civilization had an exceptionally advanced water management system, showcasing their engineering expertise:

• Drainage Systems:
  • Cities had a well-planned drainage network with house drains connected to wider public drains along main streets.
  • Drains had holes at regular intervals for cleaning and maintenance.
• Rainwater Harvesting:
  • Large-scale structures were built for collecting and conserving rainwater.
• Private Wells:
  • Most houses had private wells for water access, showing self-sufficiency.
• Dams and Reservoirs:
  • Dams were constructed to control water inlets, ensuring water availability and flood control.
  • The city of Dholavira had a sophisticated water conservation system with reservoirs, making it one of the earliest and most advanced examples of water management in the world.

Harappan Art

Harappan art refers to the artistic expressions of the people of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC). The Harappan people created a wide range of art forms, including sculptures, pottery, seals, and jewellery. Despite the absence of a deciphered script, their art provides valuable insights into their daily life, culture, and spirituality.

Characteristics of Harappan Art

• Material Variety:
  • Indus art was created using a variety of materials such as stone, clay, bronze, terracotta, gold, silver, and semi-precious stones.
  • The use of steatite (a soft stone) for seals and sculptures, and clay for figurines and pottery, was particularly common.
• Geometric Patterns:
  • Pottery and seals were adorned with geometric designs like circles, squares, and triangles.
• Craftsmanship and Technical Skill:
  • The Harappans showed great technical skills, especially in making bronze sculptures, bead jewellery, and pottery.
  • They used advanced techniques such as the lost-wax method for casting metal objects and kiln-firing for pottery.
• Religious and Spiritual Significance:
  • Much of the art had religious connotations, such as the figurines of the Mother Goddess, symbolizing fertility, and the Pashupati Seal, linked to early forms of Hindu deities.
  • Seals and sculptures are believed to have been used in rituals and trade, indicating the integration of art with everyday and spiritual practices.
• Lack of Representation of Rulers:
  • Unlike other ancient civilizations, there are no large monumental statues or depictions of kings or rulers. The focus is on symbolic figures and everyday life rather than individual portraits of power.
• Influence on Trade and Daily Life:
  • The widespread presence of art in seals, pottery, and ornaments suggests it was linked with trade, commerce, and social identity.

Famous Examples of Harappan Art

List of other famous examples

Category	Famous Examples	Material & Site
Stone Sculpture	Priest-King	The Priest-King is one of the most famous stone sculptures from the Indus Valley Civilization, discovered at Mohenjo-Daro. Material: It is a small male figure sculpted in steatite (a type of metamorphic rock). Appearance: The figure has a beard and a calm, dignified expression. Wears a headband and an elaborately patterned robe with trefoil designs. The eyes are elongated, and the nose is sharp. Significance: Called the “Priest-King” due to its regal and spiritual appearance, though the actual purpose or identity is unknown. Site: Discovered at Mohenjo-Daro by archaeologists. The Priest-King sculpture remains an iconic representation of Harappan art.
Pottery	Painted Red and Black Pottery	The Painted Red and Black Pottery is a significant example of Harappan’s artistic skill. Material: Made of clay and baked to achieve durability. Appearance: The pottery has a red base with black-painted designs. Designs include geometric patterns, floral motifs, and depictions of animals. Types: Includes jars, bowls, goblets, and storage vessels, both functional and decorative. Significance: Pottery was likely used in daily life as well as for rituals. Sites: Found across major Harappan sites like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, and Kalibangan.
	Cubical Weights	Harappan people used cubical weights made of cherts (fine-grained sedimentary rock) for measurement. These chert weights were in a ratio of 5:2:1. They used a decimal system for measurement. The discovery of these standardized weights at multiple Indus Valley sites suggests the existence of a widespread and organized trading network.
Terracotta Figures	Mother Goddess Figurine	The Mother Goddess figurine is one of the most notable terracotta artefacts from the Indus Valley Civilization. Material: Made of terracotta (baked clay). Appearance: The figurine typically has a broad hip, narrow waist, and large breasts, symbolizing fertility. Adorned with jewellry like necklaces and a headdress. Sites: Found at major sites like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
Seals	Seals	Harappan seals are among the most remarkable artefacts of the Indus Valley Civilization. They provide valuable insights into Harappan culture, trade, and religious beliefs. Thousands of steatite seals have been recovered. Material: Mostly made of steatite (a soft stone). Some seals were also made from terracotta, faience (glazed pottery), or copper. Appearance: Seals are usually rectangular or square, measuring 2-3 cm. Engraved with animal motifs, human figures, and Harappan script. Common Motifs: Animals: Unicorn (most common), bull, elephant, rhinoceros, and tiger. Other motifs include trees, deities, and geometric patterns. Pashupati Seal: Shows a figure (proto-Shiva) seated in a yogic posture, surrounded by animals, suggesting early religious beliefs. Purpose: Used as stamps for trade and commercial purposes. Possibly served as identity markers for merchants. Some seals may have had religious or ritualistic significance. Sites: Found in major sites like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Lothal, and Kalibangan.
Ornaments	Beads, Necklaces	Materials Used: – Gold and silver. – Semi-precious stones like carnelian, agate, jasper, and lapis lazuli. – Copper, shells, faience, and terracotta for common people. Types of Ornaments: Necklaces: Beaded and gold necklaces were popular. Earrings and Rings: Made of gold, silver, and terracotta. Bangles: Crafted from shell, copper, and terracotta (famous shell bangles from Kalibangan). Headgear: Diadems or headbands were worn, as seen in sculptures like the Priest-King. Girdles (waistbands), anklets, and brooches were also common. Craftsmanship: Techniques like bead-making, polishing, and piercing were well-developed. Centres like Lothal were famous for bead-making. Significance: Ornaments were worn by both men and women. The use of precious materials indicates long-distance trade with regions like Mesopotamia and Afghanistan. Sites: Ornaments have been found at Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Lothal, and Chanhudaro. Harappan ornaments highlight the advanced artistic skills, trade connections, and love for adornment among the people of this ancient civilization.

Economy

• Agriculture:
  • The fertile floodplains of the Indus River and its tributaries provided an ideal environment for agriculture.
  • The Indus Valley people practised both irrigated and rain-fed agriculture.
  • They cultivated a variety of crops, including wheat, barley, peas, cotton, and sesame.
  • Sophisticated irrigation systems, such as canals and wells, were developed to ensure consistent water supply to farmlands, contributing to high agricultural productivity.
• Trade:
  • The Indus Valley Civilization engaged in extensive trade networks, both within the region and with distant civilizations.
  • Archaeological evidence suggests trade relations with Mesopotamia, Oman, Bahrain, and other regions.
  • Trade items included pottery, beads, textiles, metals (such as copper, bronze, and gold), semi-precious stones, and agricultural products.
  • The discovery of Indus seals in Mesopotamian cities like Ur and evidence of Harappan artefacts in the Persian Gulf region highlight the extent of their trade connections.
• Craftsmanship:
  • Harappan pottery was particularly notable for its uniformity and precision, with distinctive shapes and designs.
  • Intricately carved seals made of steatite or ivory were used for administrative and commercial purposes, indicating a system of trade and governance.
• Standardization: Uniform weights and measures, evidenced by the discovery of cubical stone weights and standardized brick sizes, facilitated trade and commerce.

Indus Valley Script

The Indus script, also called the Harappan script or Indus Valley script, is a collection of symbols used by the harappans. These symbols have been found on seals, pottery, tablets, and other artifacts.

• Discovery: The first seal with Indus symbols was published in 1875 by Alexander Cunningham. By 1992, over 4,000 objects with inscriptions had been discovered, even as far away as Mesopotamia, due to trade links between the two civilizations.
• Undeciphered: Despite many attempts by scholars, the script has not yet been deciphered. Without a bilingual inscription (like the Rosetta Stone for Egyptian hieroglyphs), decoding it remains challenging.
• Pictorial Nature of the Indus Script: The characters of the Indus script are largely pictorial, meaning they represent objects or symbols from the everyday life of the Indus Valley Civilization. These symbols depict animals, plants, human figures, and geometric shapes. For example, seals often feature images of bulls, elephants, fish, or other creatures, along with the script.
• Direction of the Indus Script: Most scholars agree that the Indus script was written and read from right to left.
• Short Inscriptions: Most examples of the script are very short, typically containing just a few symbols, which makes it harder to understand whether it represents a language or something else.

Religion

• There was no such thing as a temple because none of the buildings discovered so far can be called temples.
• Numerous symbols of one phallus (lingam) and female sex organs made of stone indicate the prevalence of lingam and yoni worship.
• The difference between the Indus Valley Civilization and the Vedic civilization can be noted because the Lingam worshipers are condemned in the Rigveda.
• Probably worship of the mother goddess was widespread. This characteristic of the religious life of the Indus Valley indicates its connection with Western Asia rather than the Vedic civilization.
• The Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro is thought to have been used for religious purposes, a place for ritual purification.

Standing figure of the Mother goddess	Standing figure of terracotta found at Mohenjodaro and similar class of terracotta figurines of the IVC sites have been identified as a “mother goddess“.
	Priest-King
	A seated male in a namaskar pose was found at Harappa
	Dish container on a stand
	Pashupati seal from Mohenjodaro. It is assumed that this god was Shiva.
	Amulets

Causes of Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

The reason for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization remains a subject of intense debate among historians and archaeologists. While the exact causes are not definitively known, several theories have been proposed to explain the decline of this once-thriving civilization around 1900 BCE.

Aryan invasion	Mortimer Wheeler
Climate change	RL Stein, AN Ghosh
Flood	Marshal, SR Rao, Maickey
Epidemic	KVR Kennedy
Change in course of river Ghaggar	GF Holes

Indus Valley Civilization UPSC PSC Questions

1. Which of the following sites is not associated with the Indus Valley Civilization?

• (a) Mohenjo-Daro
• (b) Harappa
• (c) Kalibangan
• (d) Pataliputra
  Answer: (d) Pataliputra
  Explanation: Pataliputra is an ancient city located in Bihar, associated with the Maurya and Gupta empires, not the Indus Valley Civilization.

2. The Great Bath, found at Mohenjo-Daro, was used for:

• (a) Religious ceremonies
• (b) Public meetings
• (c) Bathing
• (d) Storage of water
  Answer: (c) Bathing
  Explanation: The Great Bath is a large, public bathing area found at Mohenjo-Daro, suggesting its use for ritual purification or personal hygiene.

3. Which of the following was not a feature of Indus Valley cities?

• (a) Well-planned street layout
• (b) Advanced drainage system
• (c) Pyramid-shaped temples
• (d) Standardized weights and measures
  Answer: (c) Pyramid-shaped temples
  Explanation: Indus Valley cities had well-planned streets, advanced drainage systems, and standardized weights, but they did not feature pyramid-shaped temples, which were characteristic of other ancient civilizations.

4. The script of the Indus Valley Civilization is:

• (a) Well-understood and fully deciphered
• (b) Known but undeciphered
• (c) In a language of Sanskrit
• (d) Derived from ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs
  Answer: (b) Known but undeciphered
  Explanation: The script of the Indus Valley Civilization remains undeciphered, despite numerous attempts to understand it.

5. The primary source of information about the Indus Valley Civilization comes from:

• (a) Vedic texts
• (b) Inscriptions on ancient coins
• (c) Archaeological excavations
• (d) Historical accounts by Greek travellers
  Answer: (c) Archaeological excavations
  Explanation: Our knowledge of the Indus Valley Civilization primarily comes from archaeological excavations of sites like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.

6. The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as:

• (a) The Harappan Civilization
• (b) The Aryan Civilization
• (c) The Vedic Civilization
• (d) The Mauryan Civilization
  Answer: (a) The Harappan Civilization
  Explanation: The Indus Valley Civilization is often called the Harappan Civilization because Harappa was one of its major cities.

7. Which of the following was a prominent feature of the Indus Valley trade?

• (a) Trade with Mesopotamia
• (b) Trade with China
• (c) Trade with Greece
• (d) Trade with Egypt
  Answer: (a) Trade with Mesopotamia
  Explanation: The Indus Valley Civilization engaged in trade with Mesopotamia, as evidenced by the discovery of Indus seals in Mesopotamia and Mesopotamian items in Indus Valley sites.

8. What is the significance of the seals found in the Indus Valley Civilization?

• (a) They were used as currency
• (b) They indicate a writing system
• (c) They were used for religious rituals
• (d) They were decorative items
  Answer: (b) They indicate a writing system
  Explanation: The seals, which often bear inscriptions, are believed to indicate a form of writing or record-keeping in the Indus Valley Civilization.

9. The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization is believed to be due to:

• (a) Invasion by Aryans
• (b) Natural calamities
• (c) Internal rebellion
• (d) Trade disruption
  Answer: (b) Natural calamities
  Explanation: The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization is attributed to natural calamities such as floods, droughts, or changes in river patterns, which led to the abandonment of cities.

10. The Indus Valley Civilization was primarily located in which modern-day country?

• (a) India
• (b) Pakistan
• (c) Bangladesh
• (d) Nepal
  Answer: (b) Pakistan
  Explanation: The majority of the Indus Valley Civilization sites are located in present-day Pakistan, with some extending into northwest India.

11. Which of the following was a significant urban planning feature of the Indus Valley Civilization?

• (a) Ziggurats
• (b) Citadels
• (c) Pyramids
• (d) Palaces
  Answer: (b) Citadels
  Explanation: The Indus Valley cities had citadels or elevated areas used for important public and administrative buildings, separating them from the lower residential areas.

12. What material were the famous seals of the Indus Valley Civilization made of?

• (a) Stone
• (b) Metal
• (c) Clay
• (d) Wood
  Answer: (a) Stone
  Explanation: The seals were primarily made of stone, often carved with intricate designs and inscriptions.

13. The Indus Valley Civilization had a significant system of:

• (a) Brick construction
• (b) Metalworking
• (c) Maritime trade
• (d) Animal domestication
  Answer: (a) Brick construction
  Explanation: The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were known for their standardized brick construction, which was advanced for its time.

14. What evidence suggests that the Indus Valley Civilization had a centralized administration?

• (a) Large palaces
• (b) Uniform city layouts
• (c) Extensive written records
• (d) Elaborate tombs
  Answer: (b) Uniform city layouts
  Explanation: The uniformity in city layouts, including streets and drainage systems, suggests a planned approach likely indicative of centralized administration.

15. The script of the Indus Valley Civilization is inscribed on:

• (a) Pottery
• (b) Seals
• (c) Statues
• (d) Coins
  Answer: (b) Seals
  Explanation: Most of the Indus script has been found inscribed on seals, which were used for stamping and possibly administrative purposes.

16. What was a common feature of the residential buildings in the Indus Valley Civilization?

• (a) Large courtyards
• (b) Multi-story structures
• (c) Decorative murals
• (d) Wooden beams
  Answer: (b) Multi-story structures
  Explanation: Residential buildings often had multiple stories and were constructed with baked bricks, demonstrating advanced architectural skills.

17. Which of the following is a significant Indus Valley Civilization site in India?

• (a) Lothal
• (b) Harappa
• (c) Mohenjo-Daro
• (d) Mesopotamia
  Answer: (a) Lothal
  Explanation: Lothal, located in Gujarat, is one of the key sites in India that provided evidence of a dockyard, indicating the civilization’s maritime activities.

18. Which feature of the Indus Valley Civilization indicates their advanced understanding of hydraulic engineering?

• (a) Granaries
• (b) Dockyards
• (c) Public baths
• (d) Fortifications
  Answer: (c) Public baths
  Explanation: The sophisticated design of public baths, such as the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro, demonstrates advanced knowledge of hydraulic engineering.

19. The Indus Valley Civilization is noted for its trade relations with which region?

• (a) Central Asia
• (b) Southeast Asia
• (c) Mesopotamia
• (d) China
  Answer: (c) Mesopotamia
  Explanation: The Indus Valley Civilization had established trade links with Mesopotamia, as evidenced by the discovery of Indus seals in Mesopotamian sites and vice versa.

20. What was the primary economic activity of the Indus Valley Civilization?

• (a) Agriculture
• (b) Mining
• (c) Fishing
• (d) Textile production
  Answer: (a) Agriculture
  Explanation: Agriculture was the primary economic activity, with evidence of sophisticated irrigation systems supporting crop cultivation.

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