Mughal Empire [1526-1857] Study Material for UPSC WBCS

Introduction: Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire was one of the most significant dynasties in South Asian history, spanning the Indian subcontinent from the early 16th to the mid-19th century.

The Empire was founded by Babur, a descendant of both Genghis Khan and Timur, who established his rule in India after the Battle of Panipat in 1526. The empire flourished under a succession of powerful rulers, most notably Akbar the Great, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan.

The Mughal Empire witnessed a golden age of cultural and artistic achievement, particularly during the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan. This period saw the development of Mughal architecture, miniature painting, literature, and music.

The Mughal rulers left behind a legacy of magnificent architectural marvels, including the Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan as a mausoleum for his wife Mumtaz Mahal, and the Red Fort in Delhi, which served as the imperial residence.

The decline of the Mughal Empire began in the late 17th century, marked by weak leadership, succession struggles, economic instability, and the emergence of regional powers. The empire faced challenges from Maratha and Sikh empires, as well as invasions by Persian and Afghan forces.

The empire formally came to an end with the Indian Rebellion of 1857, after which India came under direct British rule.

Important Points: Mughal Empire

They called themselves “Gurkani“. “Gurkani” means “son-in-law” (of Genghis Khan).
Persian was the official language of the Mughal court, and many contemporary accounts of the Mughal Empire were written in Persian.

Sources: Mughal Empire

Official Chronicles and Histories

Akbarnama
Tuzk-e-Jahangiri
Padshahnama	Abdul Hamid Lahori the reign of Shah Jahan

Contemporary European Accounts

Nicolo Machiavelli
Francois Bernier
Jean-Baptiste Tavernier

Literary and Artistic Works

Mirza Ghalib
Mir Taqi Mir

Archaeological Sources

Archaeological excavations at Mughal sites, including forts, palaces, and cities, have provided valuable insights into Mughal architecture, urban planning, and culture.

Secondary Sources

Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh

Sujan Rai

Notable Rulers: Mughal Empire

Babur

Babur (Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad) was the founder of the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent.
He was a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan through his father and mother respectively.
He was also given the posthumous name of Firdaws Makani (‘Dwelling in Paradise‘).
He was born in 1483 in Andijan in Fergana (in present-day Uzbekistan).
Babur was the eldest son of Umar Sheikh Mirza (governor of Fergana).
In 1494 at the age of 11, Babur became the ruler of Fergana after his father’s death.
In 1504 he conquered Kabul.
Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi, Sultan of Delhi, at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 CE. Ibrahim Lodi died during the battle. Babur used the tactic of Tulguhma and Araba in this battle.
He defeated Rana Sanga(ruler of The Mewar kingdom) in the Battle of Khanwa in 1527. He won the battle due to his skillful positioning of troops and modern tactics and firepower.
Babur died in 1530 in Agra. He was first buried in Agra but, as per his wishes, his mortal remains were moved to Kabul and reburied.
He wrote his autobiography Tuzuk-i-Baburi or Baburnama ( literally means “History of Babur” or “Letters of Babur” ) in Turki. The book was translated into Persian by Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Khanan during the reign of Emperor Akbar.
He is considered a national hero in Uzbekistan. Many of his poems have become popular folk songs.

Humayun

In 1530, Humayun succeeded his father Babur to the throne of Delhi as ruler of the Mughal territories in the Indian subcontinent.
Humayun accompanied his father, Babur, in the First Battle of Panipat (1526) against the forces of Ibrahim Lodi, the Sultan of Delhi.
Battle of Chausa (1539): The Battle of Chausa took place on June 26, 1539, near the town of Chausa (modern-day Bihar).
Battle of Kannauj (1540): The Battle of Kannauj, also known as the Battle of Bilgram, took place on May 17, 1540, near the town of Kannauj (modern-day Uttar Pradesh), between Sher Shah Suri and Humayun. Following his victory at Kannauj, Sher Shah Suri consolidated his control over North India and established the Sur Empire.
Exile: Humayun lost control of his empire to Sher Shah Suri and was forced to flee to Persia (modern-day Iran). After years of exile in Persia Humayun regained his empire with the help of the Safavid ruler, Shah Tahmasp I.
Return to India (1555): With the support of the Persian Shah, Humayun was able to regain his empire and return to India in 1555, marking the beginning of the restoration of Mughal rule.
The Central Asian origins of the dynasty were largely overshadowed by the influences of Persian art, architecture, language, and literature.
Succession Struggles: Humayun faced several challenges to his rule from his brothers and other contenders for the throne, leading to internal conflicts within the Mughal family.
Death (1556): He died in 1556, shortly after an accidental fall from the stairs of his library in Delhi.

Akbar

Birth: On 15 October 1542 in Umerkot, Sindh, to Emperor Humayun and his wife Hamida Banu Begum.
Ascension to the Throne (1556): Akbar ascended to the Mughal throne at the age of 13 after the sudden death of his father, Emperor Humayun, in 1556. Bairam Khan served as regent and ruled on behalf of Akbar during the early years of his reign.
Battle of Panipat (1556): Victory at the Second Battle of Panipat against Hemu.
Rajput Alliances: Akbar pursued a policy of diplomacy and matrimonial alliances with the Rajput rulers.
1570: Construction begins on the new capital city of Fatehpur Sikri, which later becomes a symbol of Akbar’s reign.
1575-1582: Akbar initiates the religious discussions known as the Ibadat Khana debates at Fatehpur Sikri.
1576: Battle of Haldighati against the forces of Maharana Pratap of Mewar.
1579: Akbar abolishes the jizya tax on non-Muslims as part of his policy of religious tolerance.
1581: Construction of the Buland Darwaza (Gate of Magnificence) at Fatehpur Sikri to commemorate his victory over Gujarat.
1582: The construction of Fatehpur Sikri is completed, but the city is abandoned shortly afterward due to water scarcity.
Akbar begins the construction of his tomb in Sikandra, near Agra in 1595.
1596: Akbar issues the “Infallibility Decree“. It said that the decision of the Emperor on all questions related to Islam would be final if the “mujtahid” or religious scholars could not agree on any religious matter.
1582: Birth of Akbar’s son, Prince Salim, who later becomes Emperor Jahangir.
1605: Death of Akbar on October 27th at the age of 63. He is succeeded by his son, Prince Salim, who becomes Emperor Jahangir.

Buland Darwaza e1711194233405 — ***Buland Darwaza***

Ibadat Khana

Establishment: Akbar established the Ibadat Khana in Fatehpur Sikri around 1575.
Purpose: Religious leaders from various faiths gathered at the Ibadat Khana to engage in discussions on religious matters.
Religious discussions were held there every Thursday evening.
At first they were limited to Muslims only.
Later the doors of the “Ibadat-khana” were opened to Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians and Christians.
Participants: The participants in the Ibadat Khana debates included scholars, Sufi mystics, Hindu pandits, Christian missionaries, Jain monks, and other religious figures. Notable participants included Sheikh Mubarak, a prominent Sufi saint; Abul Fazl, Akbar’s court historian and advisor; and Birbal, one of Akbar’s closest confidants.
Apart from formal discussions in the “Ibadat Khana”, Akbar used to hold private meetings with saints and scholars of various religions.
He held long discussions with Muslim Shias and Sufis, Hindu saints, Jain saints, Zoroastrian saints and Christian priests.
Among the respected Jain teachers with whom he consulted were Heer Vijay Suri (given the title ‘Jagat Guru‘) and Jin Chandra Suri.
He learned the principles and practices of Zoroastrian religion from Mahayarji Rana.
Three delegations of Catholic Christian priests belonging to the Jesuit order came to his meeting and explained to him the principles of their religion. The first was led by Acquaviva and Monserrat.
The leader of the second was Duarte Lotio.
The third was led by Jerome Xavier and Emmanuel Pinheiro.

Jahangir

Ascension to the Throne: Akbar nominated his eldest son Salim as his successor. He was supported by a group led by Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi of the Sufi Naqsbandi sect in the succession dispute on the condition that he would change Akbar’s religious policies and restore Islamic rule. He assumed the title of Jahangir.
The English East India Company established their factory in Surat in 1608, marking the beginning of formal British presence in India.
In 1611, Jahangir marries Nur Jahan, who emerges as an influential figure in his court.
By 1612, the Mughal Empire secures control over the territories of Ahmadnagar, Berar, and Khandesh.
In 1613, British Ambassador Sir Thomas Roe visits Jahangir’s court to negotiate trade privileges.
Jahangir grants the English East India Company permission to trade freely in India in 1615.
In 1617, Nur Jahan commissions the construction of the Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah in Agra in memory of her father.
Mughal forces quell a rebellion in Bengal in 1620.
The Portuguese lose control of Hormuz to the Persians in 1622, weakening their influence in the Indian Ocean.

Tomb of Itimad ud Daulah — **Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula, Agra**

Shahjahan

Shah Jahan, also known as Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram, was the fifth Mughal emperor, reigning from 1628 to 1658. He is best known for his architectural achievements, including the construction of the Taj Mahal, one of the most iconic symbols of love and architectural mastery in the world. Here are some key points about Shah Jahan:
Ascension to the Throne: Shah Jahan ascended to the Mughal throne in 1628 after the death of his father, Jahangir.
Hooghly (near Calcutta) was the main port of Portuguese in eastern India in the early 17th century. On the orders of Shah Jahan, Subadar Qasim Khan of Bengal besieged and occupied Hooghly. The Portuguese were captured and sent to Agra.
A severe famine ravaged the Deccan and Gujarat in 1630-32 AD. This famine is described in the writings of Abdul Hamid Lahori, the official historian of Shah Jahan’s reign.
In 1636 AD, the Mughal-ruled Deccan region was divided into four “Subahs”: (1) Khandesh (2) Berar (3) Telangana (4) Ahmednagar. Shahjahan gave Aurangzeb the rule of these four Subas in the south as his regent.
Decline and Deposition: Shah Jahan’s reign came to a tragic end when he was deposed by his son Aurangzeb in 1658 after a war of succession known as the War of Succession. He spent the final years of his life in captivity, confined to the Agra Fort.

Aurangzeb

bibi ka maqbara3 e1711193927576 — ***Bibi Ka Maqbara, Sambhajinagar***

Aurangzeb Alamgir, commonly known as Aurangzeb, was the sixth Mughal emperor, reigning from 1658 to 1707.
Ascension to the Throne: Aurangzeb ascended to the Mughal throne after a prolonged war of succession known as the War of Succession, during which he emerged victorious against his brothers.
Religious Policies: Aurangzeb is often remembered for his conservative religious policies, which included the imposition of the jizya (tax on non-Muslims) and the destruction of Hindu temples. He sought to enforce Islamic law more rigorously and promote Sunni orthodoxy within the empire.
Death and Succession: Aurangzeb died in 1707 after a reign of nearly fifty years, making him one of the longest-reigning Mughal emperors.

Mughal Architecture

Mughal architecture is a remarkable blend of Islamic, Persian, Turkish, and Indian architectural styles. This architectural style reached its zenith under the reign of emperors like Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan.
Use of Red Sandstone and Marble: Mughal architecture is characterized by the extensive use of red sandstone and marble in construction.
Large Courtyards and Gardens: Mughal structures often feature spacious courtyards and lush gardens.
Iwan-style Gateways: Mughal architecture incorporates iwan-style gateways, characterized by large arched openings flanked by smaller arches.
Bulbous Domes and Minarets: Mughal buildings are topped with bulbous domes, which are typically adorned with finials or kalashes. Minarets, used for both aesthetic and functional purposes, flank the main structures, providing a vertical element to the architecture.
Intricate Carvings and Inlays: Mughal architecture is renowned for its exquisite carvings, arabesques, and floral motifs, which adorn walls, ceilings, and façades. Marble inlays, known as “pietra dura,” feature intricate designs crafted from semi-precious stones.
Jali Screens and Lattice Work: Mughal buildings often incorporate jali screens and lattice work, intricately carved from stone or marble, to provide ventilation, privacy, and decorative purpose. These screens filter light and cast beautiful patterns in interiors.