Pandyan Dynasty [400 BCE-1618 CE]

Overview of Pandyan Dynasty

• Ancient Tamil Dynasty:
  • The Pandyan dynasty was one of the oldest and longest-reigning dynasties in the world, originating in ancient Tamilakam (South India).
  • The Pandyas were among the four great kingdoms of Tamilakam (The whole Tamil-speaking area of ancient times), alongside the Pallavas, the Cholas, and the Cheras.
  • They were among the “three crowned rulers” of Tamil Nadu, alongside the Cheras and Cholas.
• Periods of Rule: The dynasty existed since at least the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE and went through two periods of imperial dominance: the 6th to 10th centuries CE, and under the ‘Later Pandyas’ (13th to 14th centuries CE).
  • Early Period: Existed since at least the 4th–3rd centuries BCE, mentioned in Tamil Sangam literature and records by ancient Greeks and Romans.
  • Imperial Dominance: The dynasty had two major periods of expansion:
    • First Period (6th–10th centuries CE): Gained power under Kadungon, reviving the dynasty after a period of decline.
    • Later Pandyas (13th–14th centuries CE): Reached their peak under rulers like Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I and Maravarman Kulasekara Pandya I.
• Key Rulers and Expansion:
  • Maravarman Sundara Pandya I and Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I expanded the kingdom into South India and northern Sri Lanka.
  • The Pandyas controlled regions including the Kaveri delta (Chola country), central Kerala (Chera country), southern Kerala (Venadu), parts of the Pallava region, and northern Sri Lanka.
• Political Dynamics and Rivalries:
  • Engaged in frequent conflicts with neighboring dynasties such as the Pallavas, Cholas, and later, the Hoysalas.
  • Allied with the Cheras and Sinhalese against the Cholas during power struggles.
  • The 13th century saw victories over Hoysalas and Cholas, making Kanchi a secondary capital of the Pandyas.
• Cultural Contributions:
  • Patronage of Literature and Religion: Held the famed Tamil Sangams (poetic academies) in Madurai.
  • Some rulers were poets themselves and patrons of the Shaivite and Vaishnavite Bhakti movements, supporting saints like the Nayanars and Alvars.
  • Built important temples like the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai.
• Decline and Foreign Invasions:
  • The dynasty declined due to internal disputes and the invasion of the Delhi Sultanate in the early 14th century.
  • This led to the establishment of the short-lived Madurai Sultanate in 1334.
• Religious Shifts:
  • Though traditionally Shaivite, the Pandyan rulers briefly adopted Jainism before fully supporting Hindu religious movements in later centuries.
• Official Emblem of Tamil Nadu: The Pandyan-built Srivilliputhur Andal temple, is today the official emblem of Tamil Nadu.

Sources of the Pandyan Empire

The history of the Pandyan dynasty has been extensively documented through various archaeological sources, literary works, and records of the foreign traveller. These sources offer valuable insights into the dynasty’s governance, social life, culture, trade, religion, and relations with other kingdoms.

Here’s an in-depth look at the different sources of the Pandyan dynasty:

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Archaeological Sources

Archaeological discoveries provide some of the earliest and most concrete evidence of the Pandya dynasty’s existence and activities. These include inscriptions, coins, and other material evidence found in and around the Pandya territories.

Archaeological Source	Details
Mangulam Inscriptions (3rd–2nd centuries BCE)	These inscriptions are found near Madurai and are some of the earliest records of the Pandya dynasty. The Tamil-Brahmi script inscribed on rock slabs mentions the names of early Pandya rulers, including Nedunjeliyan, and references donations made to Jain monks. These inscriptions provide insights into the early governance and religious practices of the Pandya kingdom.
Ashoka’s Edicts (3rd century BCE)	Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire mentioned the Pandyas in his Major Rock Edicts, marking their significance in South India. Ashoka referred to the Pandyas, along with other South Indian kingdoms like the Cholas and Cheras, as having friendly relations with his empire. These inscriptions highlight the early connections between the Pandyas and other ancient Indian kingdoms.
Coins with Fish Symbol	The Pandya dynasty is famous for its distinctive fish symbol on their coins. These coins, found in archaeological sites, were used in trade and as a symbol of the Pandya kings. Silver punch-marked coins with the fish emblem date back to the early centuries BCE and indicate the flourishing trade and economy of the kingdom. They also reveal the Pandya’s influence in ancient South India.

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Literary Sources

Tamil literature is one of the richest sources of information about the Pandya dynasty. The Sangam literature—the earliest known Tamil poetry—includes numerous references to the Pandya rulers, their cities, and their achievements.

Literary Source	Details
Tamil Sangam Literature	The Sangam literature is a collection of poems composed by Tamil poets over several centuries. These works celebrate the Pandya kings, their conquests, and their patronage of arts and literature. Key works like the Akananuru, Purananuru, and Mathuraikkanci provide detailed descriptions of the Pandya kingdom. The poems praise rulers like Nedunjeliyan and Mudukudumi Peruvaludi for their valor and generosity.
Mathuraikkanci	This work by Mankudi Maruthanar describes Nedunjeliyan, one of the most famous Pandya kings, as the Lord of Korkai and recounts his military victories. It also paints a vivid picture of the cities and regions under Pandya rule, including Madurai, Korkai, and the coastal regions. This text gives insights into the administrative and cultural aspects of the Pandya kingdom.
Netunalvatai	Found in the Pattupattu collection, this poem, written by Nakkirar, also celebrates Nedunjeliyan and his achievements. The poem describes the king’s palace and his military victories, particularly in battles against the Cholas and Cheras. It provides a view of the societal and cultural dynamics of the time.

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Foreign Sources

Foreign accounts from ancient travelers and historians provide valuable perspectives on the Pandya dynasty, especially in terms of their international relations, trade, and culture. Greek, Roman, Chinese, and other foreign sources refer to the Pandyas, often highlighting their wealth, power, and role in trade.

Foreign Source	Details
Megasthenes (4th century BCE)	The Greek ambassador Megasthenes to the Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya mentions the Pandyas in his work Indica. He describes the Pandya kingdom as being in the southern part of India and notes that it was ruled by women. He also mentions the kingdom’s wealth and organization, including the fact that each of the kingdom’s 365 villages provided for the royal palace one day of the year.
Pliny the Elder (1st century CE)	The Roman historian Pliny the Elder refers to the Pandya kingdom in his writings, emphasizing its wealth, trade, and resources, especially its pearls. Pliny mentions the Pandya rulers and their interactions with the Roman Empire, indicating a thriving trade network between the two regions.
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE)	The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes the Pandya kingdom as a major trading center. It mentions the region of Nelcynda (identified as near the Pandya port of Korkai) and its rich resources, especially pearls and spices, which were highly valued in Roman trade.
Chinese Sources (3rd–7th centuries CE)	Ancient Chinese sources like the Weilüe and Xuanzang’s travel records mention the Pandya kingdom in their descriptions of South India. The Chinese historian Yu Huan refers to the kingdom as Panyue and notes its southern location, with people of smaller stature. Xuanzang, the famous Chinese traveler, mentions the kingdom of Malakutta (Madurai) during his travels in the 7th century, providing further evidence of the Pandya kingdom’s historical presence.
Marco Polo (13th century CE)	The Venetian traveler Marco Polo visited the Pandya kingdom in the 13th century and wrote about its wealth, unique culture, and people. He noted the dark complexion of the people and their preference for depicting gods as dark and devils as white. His observations offer a fascinating look at the culture and society of the Pandya dynasty during the medieval period.

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Early Pandyan Kingdom

• The early Pandyan kingdom extended between Travancore in the west, Vellaru river in the north, and all the way to the ocean in the east and the south.
• Information about the Early Pandyas mainly comes from literary sources, epigraphic findings, archaeological evidence, and numismatic evidence.
• The capital of the Early Pandyan kingdom was Korkai (Thoothukudi District). Korkai was the principal center of pearl and fishery trade.
• During the reign of Nedunjeliyan I, the capital was moved to Koodal (now Madurai).
• The kingdom lay to the south of the Maurya Empire of India.
• The kings of the Pandyan Dynasty are frequently mentioned in Sangam literature from the third century BCE onwards. Literary works such as the Mathuraikkanci and Cilapatikaram provide insights into their names and genealogy.
• Nedunjeliyan II is highlighted as a prominent warrior, known for winning battles against coalition forces from Cholas, Cheras, and other kingdoms.
• The Early Pandyas had active maritime trade relationships with the West, as attested by Western classical writers such as Pliny the Elder, Strabo, Ptolemy, and the author of the Periplus.
• The Pandyan country was renowned for pearl fishery.

The Medieval Pandyas (6th–9th Century CE)

The Medieval Pandya dynasty, which flourished from the 6th to the 9th centuries CE, marked a significant period in the history of South India. After a period of decline, the Pandyas were revived and became a dominant power in the Tamil region. The dynasty ruled over areas in southern Tamil Nadu and Kerala, with their capital at Madurai.

• Revival of the Pandya Kingdom under King Kadungon:
  • The Pandya kingdom had fallen into obscurity following the decline of the Kalabhra dynasty in the 6th century CE, but its revival began under King Kadungon (590–620 CE).
  • Kadungon is celebrated in the Velvikudi inscription, where he is praised as the “destroyer” of the Kalabhra kings, who had ruled over much of Tamil Nadu.
  • His victory over the Kalabhras paved the way for the re-establishment of Pandya rule in the region. Kadungon’s reign also marked the consolidation of power in the southern Tamil lands, particularly in and around Madurai.

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Notable Rulers and Their Achievements

• King Kadungon (590–620 CE)
  • King Kadungon is often credited with reviving the Pandya dynasty after the decline caused by the Kalabras.
  • His reign marked the beginning of the Pandya resurgence. The Velvikudi inscription commemorates his victory over the Kalabras.
  • Kadungon’s victory allowed the Pandyas to once again become a central force in the politics of South India.

• King Sendan (654–670 CE)
  • King Sendan is known for expanding the Pandya kingdom into the Chera territories (which included parts of modern Kerala and western Tamil Nadu).
  • This expansion was important for the kingdom’s trade.

• Arikesari Maravarman (670–700 CE)
  • Arikesari Maravarman was known for his battles against the Pallavas of Kanchi. Though the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I had previously defeated the Pandyas, Arikesari’s reign saw a resurgence of Pandya power.

• Maravarman Rajasimha I (730–765 CE)
  • Maravarman Rajasimha I continued the policy of expansion and military confrontation with the Pallavas. His reign is notable for the conquest of the Kongu country (western Tamil Nadu) and parts of Kerala.

• Srimara Srivallabha (r. 815–862 CE)
  • King Srimara Srivallabha is famous for his military campaigns in Sri Lanka, where he subjugated King Sena I and sacked the capital Anuradhapura. Srivallabha’s reign marked a period of significant territorial expansion, and his success helped the Pandya kingdom gain greater prestige in the region.

Pandya Architecture

The Medieval Pandyas are particularly known for their significant contributions to temple architecture. Their reign saw the construction of many grand temples in Tamil Nadu, particularly in the Madurai region. The Pandyas promoted the Dravidian style of temple architecture, which is characterized by towering gopurams (gateway towers), large courtyards, and intricate sculptures.

Temple/Structure	Location	Dedicated To	Period	Key Features and Details
Meenakshi Amman Temple	Madurai, Tamil Nadu	Meenakshi (Parvati) and Sundareswarar (Shiva)	Original construction: 7th–8th centuries CE; expanded in the 16th–17th centuries	– Tall, ornate gopurams (gateway towers), each adorned with vibrant, detailed sculptures. – 1,000-pillared hall with intricately carved pillars. – Sacred tank (Potramarai Kulam) believed to hold holy water.
Srivilliputhur Andal Temple	Srivilliputhur, Tamil Nadu	Andal (Goddess)	Major expansions: 8th century CE	– Recognized for its tall, white gopuram (gateway tower), 192 feet tall, which is the official emblem of Tamil Nadu. – Gopuram carvings illustrate stories from Tamil literature and Vaishnavite traditions.
Koodal Azhagar Temple	Madurai, Tamil Nadu	Vishnu	8th–9th centuries CE	– Known for its unique three-tiered deity sculpture, representing Vishnu in three postures (sitting, standing, reclining). – Chola and Pandya architectural styles merge here, with beautifully carved pillars.
Nellaiappar Temple	Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu	Shiva	7th–8th centuries CE	– Distinctive manadapam (halls) with musical pillars. – Notable for the Tirupathiripuliyur Pillar Mandapam and Thamirabarani river tank. – Blend of Pandya, Nayak, and Vijayanagara styles in its structures.
Tirupparankunram Murugan Temple	Tirupparankunram, Tamil Nadu	Murugan (Kartikeya)	7th century CE	– Known for its rock-cut sanctum carved into the hill. – Features intricate rock carvings and paintings depicting scenes from Murugan’s mythology. – Pandya period inscriptions found within the temple.

Key Features of Pandya Architecture:

• Temple Complexes: The Pandya kings were great patrons of temple construction. Madurai, their capital, was home to the famous Meenakshi Amman Temple, which became an iconic example of Dravidian architecture. Although the temple was expanded and renovated over several centuries, the initial construction and contributions by Pandya rulers were instrumental in shaping its grandeur.
• Gopurams: The Pandya rulers were known for their construction of large gopurams, the monumental towers at the entrance of temples. These gopurams are richly adorned with sculptures depicting gods, goddesses, and mythological scenes, a hallmark of Dravidian temple architecture.
• Carved Pillars: The Pandya period saw the development of intricately carved stone pillars, which are now a feature in several temple structures. These pillars often featured mythological stories and religious motifs, demonstrating the skill of the artisans and the cultural significance of religion during the Pandya reign.
• Madurai Meenakshi Temple: Although the Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai existed before the Pandya rule, it was during their reign that significant renovations and expansions took place. The temple became an architectural symbol of the Pandya dynasty, featuring large gopurams, hallways with stone pillars, and the famous Aksara Mandapam.

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Decline of the Pandya Dynasty

By the 9th century CE, the Pandya kingdom faced challenges from the rising power of the Cholas and the Pallavas. The Cholas, under the leadership of Rajaraja Chola I and later kings, began to overshadow the Pandya kingdom. By the end of the 9th century, the Pandya dynasty had lost significant territories to the Cholas.

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Imperial Pandyas

The Later Pandya dynasty thrived in the 13th and 14th centuries. This period is often called the “Imperial Pandya” era due to the dynasty’s large territories and influence. Key rulers, such as Maravarman Sundara Pandya I and Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I, expanded the kingdom’s reach by conquering neighboring regions, including Chola lands, Kerala, and parts of Sri Lanka. They defended their territory against rivals like the Hoysalas and Kadavas, strengthening their control over Tamil Nadu and parts of South India.

Key Rulers of the Imperial Pandya Dynasty and Their Achievements

Maravarman Sundara I (Early 13th century CE)

• Laid the foundation for Pandya dominance in South India.
• Conquered Chola territories, including Uraiyur and Thanjavur, and forced Chola king Kulothunga III into exile.
• Asserted Pandya overlordship, with Chola rulers acknowledging Pandya supremacy.
• Engaged in battles with both the Cholas and Hoysalas, expanding Pandya influence in the Kaveri Valley.

Jatavarman Sundara I (1251–1268 CE)

• Successfully expanded Pandya territories, conquering regions in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and as far as Nellore.
• Reduced Hoysala influence in the south, restricting their control to the Mysore Plateau.
• Subdued the Cholas by forcing Rajendra II to pay tribute; this led to the end of Chola rule by 1279 CE.
• Invaded Sri Lanka twice (in 1258 and 1270 CE), consolidating Pandya influence over the island.
• Captured Kanchipuram and expanded Pandya influence into the Kadava and Kongu regions.

Maravarman Kulasekara I (1268–1308 CE)

• Defeated a combined Chola and Hoysala force, securing control over Tamil Nadu and southern parts of the Hoysala kingdom.
• Invaded Sri Lanka, seizing valuable relics, including the Tooth Relic of Buddha, and maintained Pandya control over the island until 1308–1309 CE.
• Further consolidated Pandya rule across the Chola heartlands and strengthened the Pandya empire’s influence in southern India.
• Successfully contained challenges from the Hoysalas and secured Pandya dominance over South India and Sri Lanka, marking the height of Pandya power in the region.

Decline of Pandyas

• The decline of the Pandya dynasty began with a destructive war of succession after the death of Maravarman Kulasekhara I in 1310. His sons, Vira Pandya IV and Sundara Pandya IV, struggled for control over the kingdom, weakening the unity and strength of the empire. Maravarman Kulasekhara initially chose Vira Pandya as his successor, but Sundara Pandya defeated him soon afterward, sparking a prolonged internal conflict.
• Unfortunately for the Pandyas the civil war coincided with invasions from the Delhi Sultanate under Alauddin Khalji. In 1311, his general, Malik Kafur, invaded the Pandya territory, seizing immense wealth and leaving the empire vulnerable. The Pandya princes fled, and Malik Kafur’s forces temporarily retreated with large quantities of plunder.
• The conflict resumed after the Khalji forces departed, and Sundara Pandya sought assistance from the Khaljis to reclaim territory. With their support, he gained control over parts of the South Arcot region by 1314. However, further invasions from the Sultanate followed, led by Khusro Khan in 1314 and Jauna Khan in 1323, under Sultan Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq.
• By 1323, the Pandya empire had fractured severely, and the Jaffna Kingdom in northern Sri Lanka declared independence. The empire was left with only a fraction of its former territory, primarily in the South Arcot region.

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