Table of Contents
Introduction: Sources of Indian History
Sources of Ancient Indian History (Literature): The vast resources of literary works that serve as valuable sources of the ancient civilization of the Indian subcontinent.
One of the most prominent sources is the Vedas, the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, composed between 1500 BCE and 600 BCE. These texts, including the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda, provide glimpses into early Indian society, religious beliefs, rituals, and philosophical thought.
The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata believed to have been composed between 400 BCE and 400 CE, offer rich narratives about legendary events, heroic figures, moral dilemmas, and ethical teachings.
Sanskrit texts like the Arthashastra attributed to Chanakya and the Kamasutra by Vatsyayana provide insights into governance, administration, economics, statecraft, and social norms during ancient times.
Additionally, inscriptions on pillars, coins, and rock edicts, as well as literary works in Prakrit, Pali, and other regional languages, offer valuable historical information about dynasties, rulers, administrative practices, trade routes, and cultural exchanges in ancient India.
The Vedas: Sources of Indian History
- The word Veda originated from the root word Vid means knowledge.
- Vedas were composed in Vedic Sanskrit.
- There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Samaveda, the Yajurveda, and the Atharvaveda.
- Each Veda is divided into four parts
- The Samhitas (mantras and benedictions);
- The Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices);
- The Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices)
- The Upanishads (texts on philosophy, and spiritual knowledge)
- Vedas are also called Shruti (what is heard).
- Vedas is also known as Apaurusheya (not made by man).
- We came to know from Veda about the political, religious, and Socio-economic aspects of the Vedic period.
| The Vedas | Details |
|---|---|
| Rig Veda | 1. The Rigveda is the oldest known Vedic text (1500–1200 BCE) and is known as “the first testament of mankind”. 2.The First 3 Vedas are known as ‘Trayi’. Rigveda has 10 Books (Mandalas), 1028 Hymns (suktas) and 10,552 Mantras. 3. The 1st and 10th Mandalas are more recent and the longest books. The second, to seventh Mandalas, are the oldest parts of Rig-Veda but the shortest Mandalas. 4. The Famous Gayatri mantra is in Rig Veda Mandala 3. 5. The 10th Mandala contains the Purush Sukta which explains the 4 Varnas. It is said to have been added later. Rig-Veda has two Brahamanas: Aitareya Brahmana & Kaushitaki or Sankhayana Brahmana. |
| Sama Veda (1200–1000 BCE) | It is the Veda of melodies (Sama means “song” and Veda means “knowledge”). It consists of 1,549 verses. Except for 75 verses, all other verses have been taken from the Rigveda. Chandogya & Kena Upnisadas are the two main Upanishads of Sam-Veda. |
| Yajur Veda (1200–800 BCE) | It is the Veda of mantras for worship and rituals. Yajus means “worship” and Veda means “knowledge”. The Yajurveda is divided into two parts – the black or Krishna Yajurveda and the white or Shukla Yajurveda. |
| Atharva Veda (1000–900 BCE) | The Atharvaveda contains 730 hymns and 6000 mantras. It is called the “Veda of magical formulas”. It includes mantras for treating a variety of diseases. It has hymns to praise medicinal herbs and plants. The Atharvaveda has three primary Upanishads – Mundaka Upanishad, Mandukya Upanishad, and Prashna Upanishad. |
The Samhitas
- This part of Vedic literature is a collection of hymns, prayers, blessings, sacrificial rules, and social worship mantras.
The Brahmanas
- The ‘Brahman’ part of Vedic literature is written in prose.
- Brahmanas contain the explanation of religious rituals and ceremonies.
| The Vedas | Brahmanas |
|---|---|
| Rig Veda | Aitareya and Kausitaki |
| Samaveda | Sadvimsa, Mantra, and Daivata |
| Yajurveda | Shatapatha (the oldest and the largest Brahamana), Taittiriya |
| Atharvaveda | Gopatha |
The Aranyakas
- Aranyaka comes from the Sanskrit word, Aranya, which means “forest”.
- Aranyakas are concluding parts of the Brahmans.
- Aranyakas don’t focus on rites, rituals, and sacrifices but deal with the philosophy behind the rituals, sacrifices of the Vedas, and mysticism.
The Upanishads
- The word Upanishad is a combination of 2 words – ‘upa’ and ‘nishad’ which means to sit down near someone (Guru) and attain knowledge.
- The Upanishads are also known as Vedanta (the last parts of the Veda).
- It is said to be composed between 800 B.C. and 500 B.C.
- There are 108 Upanishads such as Jesh, Katha, Ken, Brihdaranyka, Mundaka, Mandukya, Chhanhdogya, Taittiriya, Aitareya and Kaushitiki.
- The national motto “Satyameva Jayate” has been taken from Mundaka Upanishad.
Upanishads are associated with one of the four Vedas.
| The Veda | The Upanishad |
|---|---|
| Rigveda | Aitareya, Kausitaki |
| Samaveda | Chandogya, Kena |
| Krishna Yajurveda | Taittiriya, Katha |
| Shukla Yajurveda | Brihadaranyaka |
| Atharvaveda | Mundaka, Mandukya |
Buddhist Literature: Sources of Indian History
- Lord Buddha taught in the local dialect which used to be the language of the masses at his time.
- He told his disciples to propagate his teachings in the local language.
- After his death, his teaching was written down in books, called Pitakas.
- The original texts were written on palm leaves and kept in baskets that’s why they are called Pitakas.
Tipitaka
- Tipitaka means “Triple Basket” i.e. the term used for collections of Buddhist scriptures.
- Sutta Pitaka – Buddha’s teachings.
- There are five nikayas (collections) of suttas:
- Digha Nikaya
- Majjhima Nikaya
- Samyutta Nikaya
- Anguttara Nikaya
- Khuddaka Nikaya
- Vinay Pitaka – It deals with the monastic rules for monks and nuns.
- Abhidhamma Pitaka – It deals with philosophy.
Jain Literature: Sources of Indian History
Jain literature is an ancient literary tradition, which was initially transmitted through oral tradition.
Jain literature is classified into two major categories:
- Agam or Canonical Literature (Agam Sutras): Agam literature consists of texts, which are the sacred books of the Jain religion. They are written in the Ardha-magadhi Prakrit language.
- Non-Agam Literature: Non-Agam literature consists of commentary on Agam literature, and independent works, compiled by scholars. They are written in many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa, Marathi, Hindi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Kannada, Tamil, German, and English.
- The existing Agam Sutras are accepted as the authentic preaching of Lord Mahavir by the Swetambar sects, but the Digambar sect does not accept them as authentic.
- Swetambara literature is written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit. It Includes 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Prakirnakasutra, 6 Chhadasutras, 4 Mulasutras, 2 Sutragranthas.
- Digambara sect believes that the original scriptures had been lost in the 2nd century CE. In the absence of original scriptures, Digambaras follow two main texts –
- Satkhandagama (“Scripture in Six Parts”),
- Kasayapahuda (about the Jain doctrine of Karma).
- Virasena (a Digambara monk of 9th century) wrote Dhavala (a commentary on Shatakhandagama).
Sangam Literature: Sources of Indian History
- Ancient Tamil Literary Gatherings: Sangam means gathering. It has been named after three Sangams (Literary gatherings of Tamil poets) held in ancient South India.
- Sangam Literature: The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and five epics named Silappathikaram ( written by Elango Adigal ), Manimegalai (written by Sittalai Sattanar), Jivaka Chintamani, Valayapathi, and Kundalakesi.
- Tolkappiyam: Tolkappiyam was believed to be written by Tolkappiyar a disciple of Vedic sage Agastya mentioned in the Rigveda and is considered the earliest Tamil literary work. It is a work on grammar.
- Ettutogai: Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies) consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai, Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal, and Padirruppatu. The Eight Anthologies consist of 2,371 poems.
- Pattuppattu: The Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls) consists of ten works and is an anthology of ten longer poems in Sangam literature. It is the earliest known Tamil literature.
- Tirukkural: Pathinenkilkanakku containing eighteen works is a collection of eighteen poetic works composed during the ‘post-Sangam period’ (between 100 and 500 CE) The most important among these works is Tirukkural ( known as the “Bible of Tamil Land”) authored by Thiruvalluvar, a famous Tamil poet, and philosopher. It deals with morals and ethics.
Other Historical Books: Sources of Indian History
| Books | Details |
|---|---|
| Arthashastra | Composed by Kautilya (Chanakya) Political and economic conditions of the Mauryan period. |
| Astadhyayi | Composed by Panini. It is a treatise on grammar that gives information about the art of writing. |
| Mahabhasya | Written by Patanjali. It is a commentary on Panini’s Astadhyayi. |
| Malavikagnimitram | A Sanskrit play, written by Kalidasa It gives information about the reign of Pusyamitra Sunga. |
| Mudrarakshasa | A play, written by Visakha datta It describes the ascent of king Chandragupta Maurya to power |
| Rajtarangini | historical chronicle of Kashmir, It was written in Sanskrit by Kalhana in the 12th century CE. |
| Kathasaritsagar | written by Somdeva |
| Swapanvasdattam | It is a Sanskrit play written by Bhasa. |
| Buddha Charita | It was written in the early 2nd century CE in Sanskrit by Asvaghosa. It tells about the life of Gautama Buddha. |
| Abhigyan Shakuntalam | a Sanskrit play by Kalidasa |
| Vikramorvashi | a Sanskrit play by Kalidasa |
| Raghuvamsa | a Sanskrit maha kavya (an epic poem) composed by Kalidasa |
| Panchsidhantika | written by Varaha Mihira, It is a treatise on mathematical astronomy |
| Brihat Samhita | written by Varaha Mihira, It covers various subjects like astronomy, planetary movements, eclipses, rainfall, clouds, architecture, matrimony, etc. |
| Mrichhakatika | Sanskrit drama, written by Sudraka |
| Gitagovinda | composed by a 12th-century poet Jayadeva |
| Harshacharita | It is the biography of King Harshavardhana by his court poet Banabhatta. |
| Kadambari | It is a romantic novel in Sanskrit composed by Banabhatta. |
| Nitisara | It was written by Kamandaka, a disciple of Chanakya. |